| | Estimated Prevalence of Obstructive Sleep Apnea–Hypopnea Syndrome After Cervical Cord InjuryPresented in part to the Canadian Association of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, June 16−19, 2005, Ottawa, ON, Canada. Abstract Leduc BE, Dagher JH, Mayer P, Bellemare F, Lepage Y. Estimated prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea–hypopnea syndrome after cervical cord injury. ObjectivesTo estimate the prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea–hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) in patients with cervical cord injury and to identify predictive factors. DesignCross-sectional study. SettingRehabilitation center. ParticipantsForty-one adults with cervical cord injury of more than 6 months in duration. InterventionsMedical history, physical exam, and full in home overnight polysomnography were undertaken. Data were collected on characteristics of spinal cord injury, current medication, sleeping habits, daytime sleepiness, body mass index (BMI), and neck circumference. Main Outcome MeasurePresence or absence of OSAHS as defined by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine criteria (1999). ResultsTwenty-two (53%) patients (95% confidence interval [CI], 38.4%–68.9%) had OSAHS. Daytime sleepiness (odds ratio [OR], 41.1; 95% CI, 2.3–739.7; P=.02), BMI of 30kg/m2 or higher (OR=17.2; 95% CI, 1.4–206.4; P=.03), and 3 or more awakenings during sleep (OR=34; 95% CI, 1.6–744.8; P=.03) were the best predictive factors of OSAHS obtained by a forward stepwise multiple logistic regression. ConclusionsThe estimated prevalence of OSAHS is high after cervical cord injury. OSAHS should be suspected, especially in patients with daytime sleepiness, obesity, and frequent awakenings during sleep. SLEEP DISORDERS ARE FREQUENTLY encountered in persons with a spinal cord injury (SCI),1, 2 who also suffer from various problems such as neurogenic pain, spasticity, and other medical conditions related to post-traumatic spinal cord lesions. Sleep apnea, mainly the obstructive type (and more rarely central or mixed), is among the sleep disorders associated with cervical cord injury, resulting in repeated interruptions of breathing during sleep which, when accompanied by daytime symptoms, defines the presence of obstructive sleep apnea–hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS). The pathogenesis of OSAHS in patients with tetraplegia remains obscure, but potential risk factors have been described, such as neck thickness,3, 4 change in the normal ventilatory response to hypoxemic stimuli,5 possible thickening of the oropharyngeal wall through unopposed parasympathetic stimulation of the mucosa and vessels wall (blocking of sympathetic spinal input),6 longer sleep periods spent in the supine position than that observed in the general population,7 a tendency to obesity,8 and the use of baclofen.9 Sleep studies without regard to symptoms have established the prevalence of sleep apnea and hypopnea in middle-aged adults to be 24% in men and 9% in women.10 According to a recent investigation in subjects with tetraplegia, however, the prevalence reaches 62% (95% confidence interval [CI], 32%–86%).4 The prevalence of OSAHS in the general population, taking into account symptomatic subjects, is 4% in men and 2% in women10 whereas in patients with SCI, the rates are found to be higher, reaching 9%11 and up to 48%.12 The large variety of methodologies used among studies no doubt accounts for the disparity between published rates and makes comparisons difficult. For instance, among some compiled studies, diagnostic criteria were provided by various parameters (arterial oxygen saturation level, airflow, pulse, respiratory efforts) without night-time polysomnography.11, 13, 14 Others investigated a limited sample size ranging from 10 patients13 to 16 patients.15 The selection of participants also varied with regard to age of the subjects selected (restricted to more than 40 years old in 1 study16) or the inclusion of some9 but not all groups of SCI subjects classified according to the criteria of the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA).17 Because of wide variations in the reported occurrence of OSAHS in persons with tetraplegia, we thought it would be beneficial to estimate more precisely the prevalence of OSAHS after cervical cord injury using the diagnostic criteria for OSAHS recommended in 1999 by the American Association of Sleep Medicine (AASM).18 To our knowledge, this study has never been done before in this population. If a high estimated prevalence of OSAHS in cervical SCI is confirmed by these criteria, clinicians could be made more aware of this fact, and could be better prepared to detect it and consequently treat it, in these very patients for whom quality of life19 and life expectancy20 are already less than optimal. The main objective of this exploratory study was to estimate the prevalence of OSAHS in subjects with a post-traumatic tetraplegia according to the diagnostic criteria recommended by the AASM; a secondary goal was to identify predictive clinical factors of OSAHS in this population. Methods  Participants After approval of this research project by the Research Ethics Committee, we recruited participants at the Outpatient Clinic of the Institut de Réadaptation de Montréal without any prior advertising or postings and without selecting patients on the basis of symptoms that could suggest sleep apnea; our intention was thus to avoid a possible bias in assessing the prevalence of OSAHS. Patients were invited to participate in the study during their medical examination if they fulfilled the following criteria: age 18 years or more with a complete or incomplete cervical cord injury for more than 6 months. Excluded were patients with a history of sleep apnea, chronic cardiorespiratory disease, or requiring mechanical ventilation. Because the sleep technician had to drive to set up the equipment for in-home sleep studies and return the following morning to pick up the equipment, those living more than 25km outside the city of Montreal, QC, and who did not agree to commute to the hospital for 1 night of polysomnography, were excluded. The sample size goal was a minimum of 40 participants, similar to the few studies with this high number of participants.12, 21 Age, SCI duration, level of the SCI (C4 to C8), and the degree of impairment according to the ASIA Impairment Scale (grades A, B, C, or D)17 were documented. Medical History Medical history focused on the symptoms that are required for the diagnosis of OSAHS according to the AASM18: excessive daytime sleepiness, daytime fatigue, impaired concentration, choking or gasping during sleep, unrefreshing sleep, and recurrent awakenings from sleep. If present, the degree of sleepiness was assessed according to the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS).22 The items were summed with a maximum score of 24. An average score of 5.9±2.2 is obtained in the general healthy population23 and a score of more than 10 is considered abnormal.24 The number of self-reported awakenings from sleep was also recorded. Although not included in the AASM diagnostic criteria for OSAHS, presence or absence of snoring (occasionally or regularly) and the use of baclofen or benzodiazepines were recorded, because these factors have been in some studies associated with OSAHS after SCI. Clinical Examination We recorded the following physical examination elements: blood pressure, height, and weight to compute the body mass index (BMI). Healthy weight is defined by a BMI ranging from 20 to 24.9kg/m2, overweight by a BMI of 25 to 29.9kg/m2, and obesity by a BMI 30kg/m2 or more. We also included neck size, which is found to correlate very well with the BMI and the frequency of sleep apnea.25 Polysomnography Thirty-nine participants underwent standard polysomnographya during 1 night of sleep in their home (unsupervised), and 2 subjects were recorded at the hospital with the same equipment. The study included an electroencephalogram (leads at: C3 and A2, C4 and A1, O1 and A2, A2 and O2), a submental electromyogram and an electromyogram of the anterior tibialis muscles, a bilateral electro-oculogram, a measure of oronasal airflow (pressure transducer), oxygen saturation by pulse oximeter (Spo2), an electrocardiogram, body position recording (sides, supine, prone) in percentages during sleep, and a measure of respiratory efforts using thoraco-abdominal straps (strain gauges). Total sleep time was measured as well as sleep efficiency, expressed as the percentage of total sleep time minus periods of awakening (electroencephalogram) during sleep. A minimum recording period of 4 hours was required for a valid sleep study in accordance with standards for sleep studies.26 Diagnostic Criteria for OSAHS We based the diagnosis of OSAHS on polysomnography criteria associated with either excessive daytime sleepiness (criterion A) or 2 or more of the following that are not better explained by other factors (criterion B): recurrent awakenings, choking or gasping during sleep, unrefreshing sleep, daytime fatigue, and impaired concentration.18 Excessive daytime sleepiness was defined according to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders as difficulty in staying awake and involuntarily falling asleep in the daytime, which could not be better explained by other factors.27 Overnight polysomnography shows 5 or more obstructed breathing events per hour during sleep lasting 10 seconds or longer (obstructive apnea or hypopnea event) or respiratory effort-related arousals of 10 or more seconds duration per hour of sleep. Apnea was defined as a complete oronasal airflow interruption; hypopnea corresponded to a decrease of at least 50% of this flow or a reduction of less than 50% if associated with greater than 3% oxygen desaturation or arousal. Arousals were scored according to the American Sleep Disorders Association criteria.28 They were classified as spontaneous or associated with respiratory efforts, snoring, or periodic leg movements. The number of apneas and/or hypopneas per hour of sleep defined the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI). Depending on the frequency of events, the OSAHS was classified as mild (AHI score, 5–14), moderate (AHI score, 15–30), or severe (AHI score, >30). Sleep was scored by experienced polysomnographic technicians according to Rechtshaffen and Kales criteria and all tracing reviewed by the sleep physician. Statistical Analysis We report data on continuous variables as mean ± standard deviation (SD) with minimum and maximum values (range), whereas data on discrete variables are reported according to relative frequency. The prevalence rate was assessed by a 95% CI. The groups with or without OSAHS were compared using a Pearson chi-square test for discrete variables and a Student t test (with Satterthwaite-Welch correction for heterogeneous variances) for continuous variables. To further assess motor complete higher level cervical SCI as a factor associated with OSAHS, participants with a C4 or C5 SCI (ASIA grade A or B) were compared with participants with a motor incomplete lower-level lesion C6, C7, or C8 (ASIA grade C or D). After dichotomizing 19 clinical variables, the 8 clinical variables for which the P value of the Pearson chi-square test was lower than .25 were used in a stepwise forward logistic regression to determine the ones that best predict OSAHS.29 The Pearson correlation coefficient was also used to measure the linear relationship between continuous variables. Significance levels were set at 5% (P<.05) for all analyses. The software used was Stata.b Results Participants From the 73 subjects approached, 15 declined to participate, and 4 were excluded for various reasons (1 subject already diagnosed with OSAHS, 2 lived too far, 1 had a multiresistant bacterial infection). Of the 54 subjects recruited, 13 did not complete the study, in 1 case because of a too brief total sleep time (<4h), and 12 subjects abandoned the study (loss of interest or additional illness translating into refusal to submit to polysomnography). Therefore, 41 participants were studied; etiology of trauma was motor vehicular in 14 (34%) cases, work in 8 (19%), sports and recreation in 13 (32%), and falls in 6 (15%). Main characteristics of the 41 participants are reported in table 1. | | |  | Characteristics | Values | |
|---|
| Age (y) | 42.5±11.1 (22−67) | | | Sex, n (%) | | | | Men | 34(83) | | | Women | 7(17) | | | Duration post-SCI (y) | 14.4±11.6(0.5−38) | | | Etiology of trauma, n (%) | | | | Vehicular | 14(34) | | | Work | 8(19) | | | Sports and recreation | 13(32) | | | Falls | 6(15) | | | Level of lesion, n (%) | | | | C4 | 9(22) | | | C5 | 10(24) | | | C6 | 17(42) | | | C7 | 2(5) | | | C8 | 3(7) | | | ASIA grade, n (%) | | | | A | 21(51) | | | B | 7(17) | | | C | 6(15) | | | D | 7(17) | | | | |
Comparison of the sociodemographic and medical characteristics (sex, age, SCI level and duration) between this group and the group of the 13 subjects who did not complete the study showed no significant differences. Prevalence of OSAHS Flow signal was reliable for all polysomnographic recordings, because no segments showed unusable data. Among the 41 participants, 5 or more episodes of apnea/hypopnea per hour of sleep were observed in 23 (56%) subjects, of whom 22 (17/22 men, 5/8 women) also fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for OSAHS: the estimated prevalence of OSAHS was thus established to be 53% (95% CI, 38.4%–68.9%). Criteria A and B were both present in 16 of the 22 apneic participants, whereas sleepiness (criterion A) was seen in 2 subjects, and 4 others fulfilled only criterion B. As for the severity of OSAHS, following the AHI definition, the syndrome was mild in 13 subjects, moderate in 1, and severe in 8 others. Sleep Study Results AHI reached 27.5±28.3 (range, 5–96) in the OSAHS group and 5±4.3 (5–19) in the non-OSAHS group. In the OSAHS group, the average duration of apneas and hypopneas lasted, respectively, 26±9.8 (11–40) seconds and 29.5±11.5 (14–52) seconds. Arousals per hour of sleep, more frequent in the OSAHS group (13±8.8 vs 7.4±4.9), were mostly related to respiratory efforts or to snoring episodes. Sleep efficiency and its overall structure did not differ significantly between both groups. Factors Associated With OSAHS The following clinical factors were associated with OSAHS: BMI (P=.02), obesity (P=.02), and neck size (P=.04). Comparison of the groups on the basis of symptoms showed that they differed only by excessive daytime sleepiness (table 2). Sleepiness reported by apneic subjects did not seem to be related to the intake of medications (P=.12). | | | | Variable | OSAHS (n=22) | No OSAHS (n=19) | P | |
|---|
| Awakenings from sleep (n) | 2.8±3 (0−15) | 1.5±1.5 (0−6) | .08 | | | Habitual snorers | 16 | 8 | .11 | | | Choking/gasping during sleep | 7 | 3 | .23 | | | Unrefreshing sleep | 19 | 13 | .20 | | | Impaired concentration | 12 | 7 | .26 | | | Sleepiness | 19 | 10 | .02 | | | Daytime fatigue | 16 | 8 | .05 | | | Medication | | | | | | Baclofen | 13 | 8 | .28 | | | Benzodiazepines | 4 | 5 | .53 | | | | |
The average ESS score in OSAHS subjects (7.9±5.5) was significantly greater (P=.03) than in the group without OSAHS (4.8±3.4), but an ESS score greater than 10 was unable to significantly differentiate the 2 groups of participants (P=0.1). Finally, we did not find a correlation between ESS score and the AHI value (r=.23, P=.28). No association was established between OSAHS and the other variables measured: age, sex, SCI level, group according to the ASIA Impairment Scale, SCI duration, snoring, fatigue, benzodiazepines, or baclofen intake average daily dose of 53mg (OSAHS) and 75mg (no OSAHS). Predictive Model of OSAHS Three dichotomized clinical variables were obtained by a forward stepwise multiple logistic regression to predict OSAHS successfully: sleepiness (presence, absence), the BMI <30kg/m2, ≥30kg/m2, and the number of awakenings during sleep (<3, ≥3). Thus, the predictive model, which included these 3 variables, sleepiness (odds ratio [OR], 41.1; 95% CI, 2.3–739.7; P=.02), BMI ≥30kg/m2 (OR=34; 95% CI, 1.6–744.8; P=.03), and 3 or more awakenings (OR=17.2; 95% CI, 1.4–206.4; P=.03), made it possible to correctly reclassify 78.5% of subjects. With the same approach but without taking into account the number of awakenings during sleep, that is, looking only at sleepiness and the BMI, the rate of predictability was 70% of the subjects. Discussion Considering our study population representative of the general population of our area, because all patients from this population with an SCI from all causes are treated at the Institut de Réadaptation de Montréal, the current study suggests a high prevalence of OSAHS in subjects with a cervical SCI compared with the general population and concurs with previous investigations that actually prove comparable in terms of sample type and size and the use of polysomnography.7, 9, 12, 15, 21 Nevertheless, given the relatively small sample size in all these studies, including ours, the results must be interpreted with caution. This study may not estimate the prevalence of OSAHS in persons with a cervical SCI accurately, but when compared with previous studies, our results, like others, are suggestive of a high prevalence of OSAHS. Even though 5 of 7 women were diagnosed with OSAHS, this small number of female participants did not allow us to assess if male sex predominance was an associated factor with OSAHS as reported in the general population. The majority of studies that did not use polysomnography as a criterion for OSAHS reported lower rates, demonstrating the greater sensitivity of polysomnography in confirming an OSAHS diagnosis. The results obtained from the 39 unsupervised home polysomnography are considered valid because it has been shown that unattended full polysomnography can be performed in the home with reliable and high-quality recordings, relative to the values in hospital settings.30 The reasons underlying the prevalence of OSAHS in subjects with tetraplegia are still unknown, but given the list of potential factors briefly listed in the introduction, it is likely that the causes are multifactorial. Obesity is a factor associated with OSAHS in the general population, but its rate (22%) in our sample was not greater than in the population at large. This obesity, observed in 9 participants, 8 of whom had OSAHS, is most likely enhanced by a decrease in daily energy expenditure and in basal metabolism.8 Furthermore, given the decrease in lean muscle mass (muscle atrophy) and the increase in adipose tissue, it is possible that the BMI probably underestimates the real percentage of fat in subjects with tetraplegia31 and therefore the actual number of obese subjects within this population. The possibility that some of the participants already suffered from OSAHS prior to their SCI cannot be totally disregarded despite a review of their personal and familial history. Though the Multivariate Apnea Prediction Index32 questionnaire is of value in identifying the presence of OSAHS prior to trauma, it was not used because the length of the post-traumatic time period prior to the study was thought to be too long (average, 14y), which could lead to a loss of reliability in answering the questionnaire. Though sleeping in the supine position in able-bodied persons is sometimes linked to OSAHS and does increase the AHI, our study did not show any correlation between this variable and OSAHS because the majority of participants in both groups slept mainly on their back. As also reported by other authors,7, 12, 14, 16 we found no association between OSAHS and baclofen, a spasmolytic agent similar to the inhibitory neurotransmitter, γ-aminobutyric acid, which is known for its decreasing effects on ventilation and response to hypercapnea and hypoxemia,33 but contradictory conclusions have also been published.9 Most probably, a careful comparison of the results published with regard to the treatment of subjects with a cervical SCI with baclofen, that is, the daily doses used, length of treatment and level of SCI, would yield more precise conclusions. The possibility of a selection bias must be contemplated and could have contributed to the high prevalence. Even though the study had not been publicized prior to the patient recruitment, it remains possible that some subjects decided to participate for personal reasons or in response to complaints about sleep disorders from their partners, resulting in some recruitment bias. Despite this last hypothesis, it is still true that if we were to consider that the 22 subjects with a diagnosis of OSAHS were the only ones out of the 72 approached (73 minus the apneic patient) at the outpatient clinic, the prevalence of OSAHS would then be 30%, and this value would still be way beyond that found in the general population. A case control study would prevent this selection bias insofar as the solicitation of subjects and their basic demographic characteristics would be comparable for both groups. Such a study, but retrospective (from looking at medical records), has already emphasized some factors associated with OSAHS in persons with a cervical SCI,34 and a prospective control study would seem advisable to bypass this difficulty and shed more light on the issue. Among the symptoms looked for as diagnostic criteria for OSAHS, excessive daytime sleepiness, observed in 19 of 22 apneic subjects, is the most frequent. This symptom is nonspecific, however, because 10 nonapneic patients were also somnolent and sleepiness has been described in 30% to 50% of the general population without OSAHS.35 The presence of sleepiness seems to be more useful for the diagnosis of OSAHS than the definition of excessive sleepiness provided by a score greater than 10 on the ESS,23 the threshold “diagnostic” number described in the literature in an able-bodied population. In our study, a score of more than 10 failed to distinguish between the groups with or without OSAHS despite a significant difference between their average scores. No validation evidence for the ESS has been reported in the SCI population, however. Furthermore, both the practicability and the reliability of the ESS score seem questionable because patients frequently underestimate the importance of their somnolence35 and correlation between the ESS score and the AHI is weak.36 The precision level of the described predictive model for OSAHS leads us to recommend its use for persons with tetraplegia while remaining cautious given the nonspecificity of the clinical factors underpinning it. It therefore seems advisable that clinicians treating patients with a cervical SCI be sufficiently informed about OSAHS to introduce in their practice some elements that could allow them to diagnose OSAHS when present. OSAHS would then be less likely to be underdiagnosed, and the appropriate treatment37 applied more quickly. Study Limitations This study has some limitations. Apart from the already mentioned possibility of a selection bias, we must remember that a risk factor not looked for in our study, the presence of cranio-oro-facial anomalies, could have been underestimated. Another limitation is the relatively small sample, comparable with other similar studies, which reduces the statistical power of our results. Validation of the proposed predictive model is needed to assess the clinical relevance of the findings in patients with tetraplegia. Finally, this study makes use of the 1999 AASM task force diagnostic criteria for OSAHS and changes to the OSAHS definition have since been published.38 Conclusions Using specific diagnostic criteria, the results of our study in 41 participants with post-traumatic tetraplegia suggest a high prevalence of OSAHS, much greater than in the general population. OSAHS should be suspected and looked for, particularly in patients with tetraplegia presenting daytime sleepiness, obesity, and frequent awakenings during sleep. Acknowledgments We thank Vincent Jobin, MD, FRCPC, Respiratory Division, Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CHUM), for his contribution to the study analysis, Benoît Dulong, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Université de Montréal, for the data analysis, and the 3 sleep technicians who carried out the polysomnographic recordings: Marie-France Gilbert, Fanny Morin, and Manon Robert. The editorial assistance of Ovid Da Silva, Research Support Office, CHUM Research Centre, is acknowledged. References 1. 1Biering-Sorensen F, Biering-Sorensen M. Sleep disturbances in the spinal cord injured: an epidemiological questionnaire investigation, including a normal population. Spinal Cord. 2001;39:505–513. MEDLINE |
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38. 38American Academy of Sleep Medicine. In: International classification of sleep disorders: diagnostic and coding manual. 2nd ed.. Westchester: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2005;p. 54. a Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Institut de Réadaptation de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada b Respiratory Division and Sleep Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal-Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu, Montreal, QC, Canada c Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada.  Correspondence to Bernard E. Leduc, MD, FRCPC, Institut de Réadaptation de Montréal, 6300 Darlington St, Montreal, QC H3S 2J4, Canada
Supported by the Fondation pour la Recherche sur la Moelle Épinière. No commercial party having a direct financial interest in the results of the research supporting this article has or will confer a benefit upon the author(s) or upon any organization with which the author(s) is/are associated. Reprints are not available from the author. PII: S0003-9993(06)01582-6 doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2006.12.025 © 2007 American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine and the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. | |
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