Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
Volume 88, Issue 3, Supplement 1 , Pages S55-S61 , March 2007

Spinal Cord Injury Medicine. 2. Acute Care Management of Traumatic and Nontraumatic Injury

  • Lisa-Ann Wuermser, MD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorrespondence to Lisa-Ann Wuermser, MD, Dept of PM&R, Mayo Clinic, 200 First St SW, Rochester, MN 55905.
  • ,
  • Chester H. Ho, MD

      Affiliations

    • Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH
  • ,
  • Anthony E. Chiodo, MD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Michigan Hospital, Ann Arbor, MI
  • ,
  • Michael M. Priebe, MD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
  • ,
  • Steven C. Kirshblum, MD

      Affiliations

    • Spinal Cord Injury Services, Kessler Institute for Rehabilitation, West Orange, NJ
    • Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Medicine and Dentistry–New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ
  • ,
  • William M. Scelza, MD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Carolinas Rehabilitation, Charlotte, NC

References 

  1. Key reference.

  2. MacKenzie EJ, Rivara FP, Jurkovich GJ, et al. A national evaluation of the effect of trauma-center care on mortality. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:366–378
  3. Consortium for Spinal Cord Medicine. Early acute management in adults with spinal cord injury: a clinical practice guideline for health-care providers. Washington (DC): Paralyzed Veterans of America; 2007;

  4. Dolan EJ, Tator CH, Endrenyi L. The value of decompression for acute experimental spinal cord compression injury. J Neurosurg. 1980;53:749–755
  5. Guha A, Tator CH, Endrenyi L, Piper I. Decompression of the spinal cord improves recovery after acute experimental spinal cord compression injury. Paraplegia. 1987;25:324–339
  6. Fehlings MG, Tator CH. An evidence-based review of decompressive surgery in acute spinal cord injury: rationale, indications, and timing based on experimental and clinical studies. J Neurosurg Spine. 1999;91:1–11
  7. Fehlings MG, Perrin RG. The role and timing of early decompression for cervical spine injury: update with a review of the recent clinical evidence. Injury. 2005;36(Suppl 2):B13-26.

  8. Kishan S, Vives MJ, Reiter MF. Timing of surgery following spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 2005;28:11–19
  9. McKinley W, Meade M, Kirshblum S, Barnard S. Outcomes of early surgical management versus late or no surgical intervention after acute spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:1818–1825

  10. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal-cord injury (Results of the Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study). N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1405–1411
  11. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Holford TR, et al. Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury (Results of the Third National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Randomized Controlled Trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study). JAMA. 1997;277:1597–1604
  12. Coleman WP, Benzel D, Cahill DW, et al. A critical appraisal of the reporting of the National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Studies (II and III) of methylprednisolone in acute spinal cord injury. J Spinal Disord. 2000;13:185–199
  13. Management of acute central cervical spinal cord injuries. Neurosurgery. 2002;50(3 Suppl):S166–S172
  14. Qian T, Guo X, Levi AD, Vanni S, Shebert RT, Sipski ML. High-dose methylprednisolone may cause myopathy in acute spinal cord injury patients. Spinal Cord. 2004;43:199–203
  15. Eck JC, Nachtigall D, Humphreys SC, Hodges SD. Questionnaire survey of spine surgeons on the use of methylprednisolone for acute spinal cord injury. Spine. 2006;31:E250–E253
  16. Levi L, Wolf A, Belzberg H. Hemodynamic parameters in patients with acute cervical cord trauma: description, intervention, and prediction of outcome. Neurosurgery. 1993;33:1007–1017
  17. Cina CS, Abouzahr L, Arena GO, Lagana A, Devereaux PJ, Farrokhyar F. Cerebrospinal fluid drainage to prevent paraplegia during thoracic and thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Vasc Surg. 2004;40:36–44
  18. Blood pressure management after acute spinal cord injury. Neurosurgery. 2002;50(3 Suppl):S58–S62
  19. Bilello JF, Davis JW, Cunningham MA, Groom TF, Lemaster D, Sue LP. Cervical spinal cord injury and the need for cardiovascular intervention. Arch Surg. 2003;138:1127–1129
  20. Krassioukov AV, Furlan JC, Fehlings MG. Autonomic dysreflexia in acute spinal cord injury: and underrecognized clinical entity. J Neurotrauma. 2003;20:707–716
  21. Price MJ, Campbell IG. Effects of spinal cord lesion level upon thermoregulation during exercise in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35:1100–1107
  22. Sugarman B. Fever in recently injured quadriplegic persons. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1982;63:639–640
  23. Winemiller MH, Stolp-Smith KA, Silverstein MD, Therneau TM. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients with spinal cord injury: effects of sequential pneumatic compression and heparin. J Spinal Cord Med. 1999;22:182–191
  24. Consortium for Spinal Cord Medicine. Prevention of thromboembolism in spinal cord injury. 2nd ed. Washington (DC): Paralyzed Veterans of America; 1997;
  25. Geerts WH, Pineo GF, Heit JA, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004;126:338S–400S
  26. Morris CS, Rogers FB, Najarian KE, Bhave AD, Shackford SR. Current trends in vena caval filtration with the introduction of a retrievable filter at a level 1 trauma center. J Trauma. 2004;57:32–36
  27. Simons RK, Hoyt DB, Winchell RJ, Holbrook T, Eastman AB. A risk analysis of stress ulceration after trauma. J Trauma. 1995;39:289–293
  28. Dial S, Delaney JA, Barkun AN, Suissa S. Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA. 2005;294:2989–2995
  29. Waring WP, Maynard FM. Shoulder pain in acute traumatic quadriplegia. Paraplegia. 1991;29:37–42
  30. Consortium for Spinal Cord Medicine. Neurogenic bowel management in adults with spinal cord injury. Washington (DC): Paralyzed Veterans of America; 1998;

  31. Kirshblum SC, Priebe MM, Ho CH, Scelza WM, Chiodo AE, Wuermser LA. Spinal cord injury medicine. 3. Rehabilitation phase after acute spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88(3 Suppl 1):S62-70.
  32. Morton SC, Shekelle PG, Adams JL, et al. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for urinary tract infection in persons with spinal cord dysfunction. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83:129–138
  33. DeVivo M, Stover S. Long-term survival and causes of death. In:  Stover S,  DeLisa J,  Whiteneck GG editor. Spinal cord injury: clinical outcomes from the model systems. Gaithersburg: Aspen; 1995;p. 289–316
  34. Jackson AB, Groomes TE. Incidence of respiratory complications following spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1994;75:270–275
  35. Bach JR. Mechanical insufflation-exsufflation: comparison of peak expiratory flows with manually assisted and unassisted coughing techniques. Chest. 1993;104:1553–1562
  36. Fishburn MJ, Marino RJ, Ditunno JF. Atelectasis and pneumonia in acute spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1990;71:197–200
  37. Massery M. Manual breathing and coughing aids. Phys Med Rehabil Clinic N Am. 1996;7:407–422
  38. Consortium for Spinal Cord Medicine. Respiratory management following spinal cord injury: a clinical guideline for health-care professionals. Washington (DC): Paralyzed Veterans of America; 2005;

  39. Peterson WP, Barbalata L, Brooks CA, Gerhart KA, Mellick DC, Whiteneck GG. The effects of tidal volumes on the time to wean persons with high tetraplegia from ventilators. Spinal Cord. 1999;37:284–288
  40. Kirshblum S, Johnston M, Brown J, O’Connor KC, Jarosz P. Predictors of dysphagia after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80:1101–1105
  41. Smith-Hammond CA, New KC, Pietrobon R, Curtis DJ, Scharver CH, Turner DA. Prospective analysis of incidence and risk factors of dysphagia in spine surgery patients: comparison of anterior cervical, posterior cervical, and lumbar procedures. Spine. 2004;29:1441–1446
  42. Rodriguez DJ, Benzel EC, Clevenger FW. The metabolic response to spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 1997;35:599–604
  43. Dvorak MF, Noonan VK, Belanger L, et al. Early versus late enteral feeding in patients with acute cervical spinal cord injury: a pilot study. Spine. 2004;29:E175–E180
  44. Consortium for Spinal Cord Medicine. Pressure ulcer prevention and treatment following spinal cord injury: a clinical practice guideline for health-care professionals. Washington (DC): Paralyzed Veterans of America; 2000;
  45. Marino RJ, Barros T, Biering-Sorenson F, et al. ASIA Neurological Standards Committee International standards for neurological classification of spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 2003;26:S50–S56
  46. Marino R. Neurological and functional outcomes in spinal cord injury: review and recommendations. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil. 2005;10:51–64
  47. Ditunno JF, Flanders A, Kirshblum SC, Graziani V, Tessler A. Predicting outcome in traumatic SCI. In:  Kirshblum S,  Campagnolo DI,  DeLisa JA editor. Spinal cord medicine. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002;p. 108–122

  48. Oleson CV, Burns AS, Ditunno JF, Geisler FH, Coleman WP. Prognostic value of pinprick preservation in motor complete, sensory incomplete spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86:988–992
  49. Marino RJ, Ditunno JF, Donovan WF, Maynard F. Neurologic recovery after traumatic spinal cord injury: data from the Model Spinal Cord Injury Systems. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80:1391–1396
  50. Burns AS, Lee BS, Ditunno JF, Tessler A. Patient selection for clinical trials: the reliability of the early spinal cord injury examination. J Neurotrauma. 2003;20:477–482
  51. Kirshblum S, Millis S, McKinley W, Tulsky D. Late recovery after traumatic spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:1811–1817
  52. Ditunno JF, Little LW, Tessler A, Burns AS. Spinal shock revisited: a four phase model. Spinal Cord. 2004;42:383–395
  53. Ko HY. The pattern of reflex recovery during spinal shock. Spinal Cord. 1999;37:402–409
  54. Calancie B, Molano MR, Broton JG. Tendon reflexes for predicting movement recovery after SCI in humans. Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;115:2350–2363
  55. Scivoletto G, Morganti B, Ditunno P, Ditunno JF, Molinari M. Effects of age on spinal cord lesion in patients’ rehabilitation. Spinal Cord. 2003;41:457-46.
  56. Sipski ML, Jackson AB, Gomez-Marin O, Estores I, Stein A. Effects of gender on neurologic and functional recovery after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:1826–1836
  57. Furlan JC, Krassioukov AV, Fehlings MG. The effects of gender on clinical and neurological outcomes after acute cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma. 2003;20:368–381
  58. Carmosino MJ, Brousseau KM, Arciniegas DB, Corboy JR. Initial evaluations for multiple sclerosis in a university multiple sclerosis center: outcomes and role of magnetic resonance imaging in referral. Arch Neurol. 2005;62:585–590

  59. Bastianello S, Pichiecchio A, Spadaro M, et al. Atypical multiple sclerosis: MRI findings and differential diagnosis. Neurol Sci. 2004;25(Suppl 4):S356–S360
  60. Transverse Myelitis Consortium Working Group. Proposed diagnostic criteria and nosology of acute transverse myelitis. Neurology. 2002;59:499–505
  61. White ML, El-Khoury GY. Neurovascular injuries of the spinal cord. Eur J Radiol. 2002;42:117–126
  62. Chaudhuri A, Behan PO. Multiple sclerosis is not an autoimmune disease. Arch Neurol. 2004;61:1610–1612
  63. Bergamaschi R, Tonietti S, Franciotta D, et al. Oligoclonal bands in Devic’s neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis: differences in repeated cerebrospinal fluid examinations. Mult Scler. 2004;10:2–4
  64. de Seze J, Lebrun C, Stojkovic T, Ferriby D, Chatel M, Vermersch P. Is Devic’s neuromyelitis optica a separate disease? (A comparative study with multiple sclerosis). Mult Scler. 2003;9:521–525
  65. Chapman J. The interface of multiple sclerosis and antiphospholipid antibodies. Thrombosis Res. 2004;114:477–481

 No commercial party having a direct financial interest in the results of the research supporting this article has or will confer a benefit upon the author(s) or upon any organization with which the author(s) is/are associated.

 Reprints are not available from the author.

PII: S0003-9993(06)01558-9

doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2006.12.002

Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
Volume 88, Issue 3, Supplement 1 , Pages S55-S61 , March 2007